Reports and reference material, in one place
Independent policy papers and science from organizations worldwide, gathered and tagged for relevance to American Sāmoa. For the Territory's own positions, see the white papers →
- docGlobal
[PDF] The U.S. Executive Order on Seabed Mining is Consistent with International Law
Source: digital-commons.usnwc.eduThis article focuses only on the legality of U.S. deep seabed min-ing beyond national jurisdiction, as the issues pertaining to the continental shelf implicate a separate regime in Part VI of UNCLOS and customary law. This analysis sidesteps related environmental, economic, and political debates surrounding deep seabed mining.
- docPacific Islands
[PDF] Role and responsibilities of Sponsoring States in deep seabed mining
Source: isa.org.jmUnder the ISA legal framework, sponsoring States must exercise due diligence to ensure deep-sea mining contractors comply with applicable regulations. Responsibilities include issuing sponsorship certificates, monitoring activities, reviewing environmental assessments, applying the precautionary approach, and promoting environmental best practices. States must maintain effective oversight, while contractors must comply with legal and environmental requirements and respect the rights of other ocean users and coastal States.
- docGlobal
The Development of the Regime for Deep Seabed Mining
Source: isa.org.jmThe development of international deep-seabed mining regulations began in the 1920s, driven by growing concerns over maritime safety, offshore mineral resources, and marine conservation. Interest intensified in the 1950s and 1960s following discoveries of mineral-rich manganese nodules, including samples near Tahiti. These developments highlighted the economic potential of deep-sea mining and the need for international cooperation and governance of seabed resources.
- docPacific Islands
Africa's Deep Seabed Resources Project: Second Workshop Report (2019)
Source: isa.org.jmDeep-sea mineral deposits, including polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich crusts, and seafloor sulphides, contain valuable metals such as manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, and rare earth elements. Their economic potential is driving interest in deep-sea mining as an alternative source of critical minerals. However, exploration and development must follow International Seabed Authority (ISA) environmental guidelines, including impact assessments, monitoring, and cooperation with regulatory authorities to minimize harm to marine ecosystems.
- docGlobal
[PDF] CNMI Area Identification Decision Memo
Source: boem.govArea Identification Recommendation for the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Mineral Leasing Process
- docPacific Islands
[PDF] ISA Implementation and review of the Strategic Plan 2019 - 2023
Source: isa.org.jmUNCLOS recognizes the need to protect developing countries from potential economic impacts of deep-sea mining, particularly those dependent on land-based production of copper, nickel, cobalt, and manganese. The ISA and Pacific Community (SPC) have partnered to strengthen Pacific Island countries’ scientific and technical capacity for sustainable seabed mineral development. Initiatives such as the EU-supported TRIDENT project also aim to improve environmental impact assessments through advanced, automated monitoring technologies.
- docPacific Islands
[PDF] ISA Potential interactions between fishing and mineral resource-related activities
Source: isa.org.jmResearch suggests that deep-sea mining may have limited direct impacts on commercially assessed fish stocks, although species living on or near the ocean floor remain vulnerable. Studies in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone and Mid-Atlantic Ridge highlight the importance of understanding cumulative environmental impacts, protecting deep-sea ecosystems, and conducting further research before mineral exploitation proceeds.
- docPacific Islands
[PDF] Deep Seabed Mining Techical Guidance Document (1981)
Source: library.oarcloud.noaa.govUnder the U.S. Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act, NOAA oversees exploration and mining of manganese nodules containing nickel, cobalt, manganese, and copper in the Pacific Ocean. Environmental concerns include disturbance of seafloor ecosystems, loss of marine organisms, and potential impacts on fish larvae from sediment plumes. NOAA’s environmental studies help assess these risks and guide responsible deep-sea mining activities.
- docPacific Islands
[PDF] SPC-EU Deep Sea Minerals Project - Publications and Reports
Source: dsm.gsd.spc.intA report on “An Assessment of the Costs and Benefits of Mining Deep-sea Minerals in the Pacific Islands Region.” This Cost-Benefit Analysis was conducted independently by CARDNO and commissioned by the DSM Project. This report was prepared by the NIWA in response to the Pacific Community (SPC) call for proposals to conduct an independent assessment of the potential impacts of Deep Seabed Minerals Mining on Pacific island fisheries.
- docPacific Islands
Cost benefit analysis of deep sea mining in Pacific released | The Pacific Community
Source: spc.intAn Assessment of the Costs and Benefits of Mining Deep- Sea Minerals in the Pacific Island region. Various scenarios for mining deep sea minerals in the waters of three Pacific Island countries are assessed in a cost benefit analysis report commissioned by the Pacific Community (SPC) and the European Union.
- docPacific Islands
Deep sea minerals frameworks to inform decision-making | The Pacific Community
Source: spc.intTwo frameworks released today will build knowledge of deep sea minerals and their governance, and support informed decision-making by Pacific Island countries. They are the latest information resources developed for stakeholders interested in this emerging sector through the European Union-supported Deep Sea Minerals Project, implemented by the Pacific Community (SPC).
- docPacific Islands
SPC-EU Deep Sea Minerals Project - Cost benefit analysis of deep sea mining in Pacific released
Source: dsm.gsd.spc.intThe report aims to assist Pacific Island countries with their decision making concerning deep sea minerals and provide information about the potential magnitude of the impacts of deep sea mining. The assessment, conducted by Cardno between February and October 2015, offers decision-makers insights into the potential constraints and challenges to achieving positive net benefits if deep sea minerals mining were to occur under current circumstances.
- docGlobal
[PDF] Deep seabed mining - the NOAA Institutional Repository
Source: repository.library.noaa.govDuring the two years covered by this report, licensees' activities have continued to be directed toward analysis of environmental and resource data.
- docPacific Islands
SPC-EU Deep Sea Minerals Project - Breaking the Surface: The Future of Deep Sea Mining in the Pacific
Source: dsm.gsd.spc.intSPC-EU Deep Sea Minerals Project The Future of Deep Sea Mining in the Pacific explores how the two Pacific Island nations (Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu) are working together with their communities to manage future opportunities and impacts associated with the deep sea mining industry. DSM Governance shows how the Deep Sea Minerals Project supports Pacific Island countries in sustainably developing their seabed minerals resources.
- docGlobal
Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Mining
Source: oceanservice.noaa.govDeep seabed mining is the extraction of critical mineral resources from the ocean floor. The deep seabed has valuable resources like manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, and rare earth elements. Critical minerals are used in everything from defense systems and batteries to smartphones and medical devices. Access to these minerals is a key factor in the resilience of U.S. supply chains. DSHMRA Statute 30 U.S.C. 1401, et seq.; DSHMRA Exploration License Regulations 15 CFR part 970; DSHMRA Commercial Recovery Permit Regulations 15 CFR part 971; Deep Seabed Mining Technical Guidance Document (1981); DSHMRA Paperwork Reduction Act Application Instructions; DSHMRA Privacy Act Statement and PRA Burden Statement.
- docPacific Islands
[PDF] Deep seabed mining - the NOAA Institutional Repository
Source: repository.library.noaa.govAlthough 79 elements have been identified in Pacific. Ocean nodules, only four are of strategic and economic importance: manganese, copper,
- docGlobal
[PDF] ANNUAL REPORT - International Seabed Authority
Source: isa.org.jmThe International Seabed Authority supports sustainable deep-sea resource management through regulation, environmental protection, scientific research, and international cooperation. Its work includes developing exploration and exploitation rules, protecting sensitive marine areas, maintaining environmental and scientific data, and promoting research and benefit-sharing related to deep-seabed mining.
- docGlobal
Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Mining
Source: oceanservice.noaa.govDeep seabed mining is the recovery of critical minerals from the ocean floor, including manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, and rare earth elements. These minerals are important to technologies ranging from batteries and smartphones to medical equipment and defense systems, and are increasingly viewed as important to U.S. supply chain resilience. U.S. deep seabed mining activities are governed by the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act (DSHMRA), related NOAA exploration and commercial recovery regulations, and supporting technical and application guidance. Additional resources include scientific information and assessments, permitting guidance, regulations and statutes, and recent NOAA announcements concerning deep seabed mineral development.
- docGlobal
The Mining Code: Studies, Reports and Workshop Reports - International Seabed Authority
Source: isa.org.jmISA resources include studies and guidance on the economic value of deep-sea ecosystems, financial and payment models for seabed mining, mineral valuation, taxation, and the financial terms for exploitation. They also cover the respective rights and responsibilities of the ISA and sponsoring States and the development of the broader regulatory framework for mineral exploitation in the Area.
- docPacific Islands
Deep sea minerals | The Pacific Community
Source: spc.intThe Pacific Community provides research, policy guidance, and technical support to help Pacific Island countries understand and manage deep-sea mineral resources. Its work has included legal and governance frameworks, cost-benefit analysis, public consultation, and support for countries such as Fiji, Cook Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Nauru, and the Marshall Islands as they consider the opportunities, risks, and regulation of seabed mineral development.
- reportAmerican Sāmoa
Mapping the American Sāmoa EEZ
Source: NOAA Ocean ExplorationOcean-exploration survey results characterizing the seafloor, seamounts, and habitats of the territory's exclusive economic zone.
- reportGlobal
Deep-sea mining environmental management plan
Source: International Seabed AuthorityAn overview of the regulatory and environmental framework governing seabed mineral activity, with relevance to Pacific island jurisdictions.
- docClarion–Clipperton Zone
[PDF] Analysis of the Economic Benefits of Developing Commercial Deep ...
Source: isa.org.jmThis report analyzes the economic benefits of developing commercial deep-sea mining in regions where Germany has exploration licenses from the International Seabed Authority. It covers commercial analysis, economic benefits for Germany, and pilot mining test options.
- docInternational Waters
[PDF] Technical Study No.11 - International Seabed Authority
Source: isa.org.jmThis technical study by the International Seabed Authority examines the regulatory framework for polymetallic nodule exploitation in the deep seabed, including conclusions and recommendations.
- docInternational Waters
[PDF] MAKING THE MOST OF DEEP SEABED MINERAL RESOURCES
Source: isa.org.jmA high-level review of mining tax regimes for minerals extracted from the deep ocean floor, highlighting key considerations.
- docUnited States
[PDF] Deep Seabed Mining - the NOAA Institutional Repository
Source: repository.library.noaa.govThis plan outlines the ocean research program for FY 1981-1985 needed to support environmental assessment activities during deep seabed mining.
- docPacific Islands
[PDF] Environmental Management Needs for Exploration and Exploitation ...
Source: isa.org.jmA 2011 workshop in Nadi, Fiji, co-hosted by the International Seabed Authority, Fiji, and SPC, addressed environmental management needs for deep-sea mineral exploration and exploitation.
- docInternational Waters
[PDF] DEEP-SEA MINING - International Seabed Authority
Source: isa.org.jmA PDF from the International Seabed Authority discusses deep-sea mining, referencing studies on critical metals, environmental impacts, and feasibility of mining polymetallic nodules.
- docUnited States
[PDF] Deep Seabed Mining Final Environmental Impact Statement
Source: repository.library.noaa.govThis Environmental Impact Statement evaluates potential environmental effects of deep seabed mining activities proposed by Ocean Minerals Company.
- docUnited States
[PDF] Deep seabed mining - the NOAA Institutional Repository
Source: repository.library.noaa.govThis report outlines NOAA's progress in implementing the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act and developing the deep seabed mining program within legal frameworks.
- docUnited States
[PDF] Deep seabed mining : report to Congress, December 1987
Source: repository.library.noaa.govA 1987 report to Congress notes that while 79 elements are found in Pacific Ocean nodules, only manganese and copper are strategically and economically important.
- docInternational Waters
[PDF] IMPLEMENTATION AND REVIEW OF THE STRATEGIC PLAN 2019 ...
Source: isa.org.jmThe ISA Strategic Plan 2019–2025 focuses on strengthening ocean governance, advancing marine science, enabling a low-carbon transition, preventing environmental harm from deep-seabed mining, building institutional capacity, and developing mineral resources for humanity's benefit.